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Carroll's Model of School Learning
In 1963, John Carroll proposed a model to account for school learning. His major premise was that school learning is a function of time. To be more specific, Carroll proposed thatSchool Learning = f(time spent/time needed).
Carroll defined time spent as a function of opportunity and perseverance. The measure he proposed for opportunity was allocated time or the amount of time the classroom teacher made available for school learning. The measure Carroll proposed for perseverance was engagement rate or the percentage of the allocated time that students were actually on task. Allocated time was multiplied by engagement rate to produce engaged time or time on task which is defined as the number of minutes per school day that students were actually engaged in school work.
Carroll defined time needed as a function of aptitude, ability to understand instruction, and quality of instruction. By aptitude Carroll meant the ability to learn academic material. One measure of this variable would be IQ. By ability to understand instruction, Carroll meant the preparedness of the student for understanding the specific material to be learned. Bloom, a colleague of Carroll's at the University of Chicago, later proposed a measure of prerequisite knowledge as the best measure of ability to understand instruction. Carroll proposed a wide variety of instruction methods and techniques that he believed should be present in quality instruction. Later research identified a system of instruction labeled "direct instruction" as the best definition of quality instruction when the desired outcome is scores on standardized tests of basic skills.
The model of the teaching/learning process presented in this class is an expansion of Carroll's model. While Carroll proposed very specific variables related to school learning, which have since been equated with scores on standardized tests of basic skills, my model focuses on categories of variables with the expectation that the selection of important variables and the relationship among those variables would change with different definitions of what is meant by "school learning." For example, context variables are not considered in Carroll's model. One reason was that Carroll was attempting to focus on those variables most directly related to school learning and the inclusion of variables such as family and community would complicate the model. However, the changes in the global economy of the last 30 years and the need to focus on additional outcome measures beyond school learning, point to the need to broaden the scope of important variables.
In addition, important teacher characteristics and classroom planning and management were omitted. Using Carroll's terminology, according to my model of the teaching/learning process
Learning (Output) = f(Context, Input and Process).
Output is the specific measurement or measurements of learning which can include more than scores on standardized tests of basic skills. Context includes the environmental or situational factors such as home environment and changing global conditions that relate to a definition of important educational outcomes and how they are measured as well as input and process variables. Input includes the characteristics of teachers and students that they have when they enter the teaching/learning process. Process includes the actions, thinking and feelings of teachers and students within the classroom or learning situation as well as the interaction patterns and descriptions of the environment that result from those interactions.
Carroll, J. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723-733.